Nucleic Acids

A nucleic acid is a polymeric macromolecule made up of repeated units of monomeric 'nucleotides' composed of a nitrogenous heterocyclic base which is either a purine or a pyrimidine, a pentose (five carbon) sugar (either ribose or 2′-deoxyribose), and 1 to 3 phosphate groups.

From: Chemical Analysis of Nutrient: Techniques and Applications , 2012

Nucleic Acid Isolation

Stephanie A. Thatcher , in Principles and Applications of Molecular Diagnostics, 2018

Conclusion

Nucleic acid isolation may exist required from human being cells of unlike types or gratis circulating NA. When pathogens are of involvement, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, and fungi must be considered. Multiplex testing may depend on simultaneous isolation of NA from some or all of these sources. Many techniques are bachelor, requiring a considered option of commercial products or a combination of techniques for any given application. Many NA training kits from companies specialize in making the procedure every bit simple every bit possible. NA isolation solutions are constantly improving to run across the complex needs of an evolving diagnostic world.

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Food Protected Designation of Origin

Constantin Apetrei , Mahdi Ghasemi-Varnamkhasti , in Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry, 2013

2.1.v DNA Biosensors

Nucleic acids such every bit DNA (deoxyribonucleic acrid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid) are composed of a sugar or derivative of a carbohydrate (ribose or ii-deoxyribose), a nucleobase (cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine, or uracil), and phosphoric acid and found in cell nuclei. A unmarried-strand nucleic acrid molecule is able to recognize and bind to its complementary strand in a sample, a property that tin be used in developing a biosensor as cistron probe. Consequently, a nucleic acid is a segment of the nucleic acid that specifically recognizes and binds to a nucleic acid target. The interaction is based on the formation of stable hydrogen bonds betwixt the two nucleic acid strands [21].

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Responsive polysaccharides and polysaccharides-based nanoparticles for drug commitment

Ndidi C. Ngwuluka , in Stimuli Responsive Polymeric Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery Applications, Book one, 2018

19.5.three Polysaccharides for delivery of nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are behemothic biomolecules made of monomers chosen nucleotides. Nucleotides have three components: pentose sugar (5-carbon saccharide), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. The nucleic acids are of 2 major types: natural and synthetic nucleic acids. The natural nucleic acids are the two known types: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and Dna. The pentose sugar in RNA is ribose while DNA contains deoxyribose. The other deviation is institute in the nitrogenous base of operations component. While the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, and cytosine are identified in both Deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA, thymine is found only in DNA, and uracil is found only in RNA [24]. The nucleic acids are large; for case, the human eighteen ribosomal RNA (rRNA) has a molecular weight of 6.4   ×   tenfive  Da and contains 1868 nucleotides. These natural nucleic acids, RNA and Dna, execute cellular processes such equally regulation and expression of genes. Deoxyribonucleic acid possess all information needed to construct the cells and tissues of an organism and in the procedure of transcription, the information is transferred into RNA which is involved in protein synthesis, executing functions such as catalysis and molecular recognition. Artificial nucleic acids are chemical modifications of the natural nucleic acids and constructed nucleic acids with altered sugar and/or phosphate courage [25]. Nucleic acids have been employed as biosensors, diagnostic agents, and therapeutic agents. Nucleic acids are suggested for the handling of HIV, cancer, cystic fibrosis, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascular illness, and neurodegenerative disorders [26]. Like the proteins, nucleic acids are prone to enzymatic degradation. The commonly employed delivery vehicles for nucleic acids are the genetically engineered viruses. However, owing to unpredictable immune responses and the relative difficulty in manufacturing the viruses, the nonviral vehicle became the focus of research [26]. Toxicity bedeviled the use of synthetic materials and every bit a, result, the polysaccharide-based vehicles are beingness developed and preferred for commitment of nucleic acids.

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Nanomedicine for combinational anticancer drug therapeutics: Contempo advances, challenges, and future perspectives

Mahfoozur Rahman , ... Farhan Jalees Ahmad , in Nanoformulation Strategies for Cancer Handling, 2021

1.iv Conclusions and future perspectives

Nucleic acids provide an attractive selection in anticancer therapy. Several challenges are discussed in this affiliate, including those that hinder therapeutic efficacy and clinical translation. A multidisciplinary arroyo has been utilized to construct the NA and combinational anticancer drug-loaded nanocarriers for cancer-targeted therapeutics. Nonviral carriers accept been employed to deliver NA and synthetic anticancer drugs by altering their physiochemical backdrop. The developed nanomedicine found enhanced characteristics to overcome individual barriers. This chapter summarizes the advancement in NA drug delivery lonely or in combination with other chemotherapeutic drugs in term of responsive, nonviral NA nanocarriers to overcome sure barriers. These nanocarriers have shown excellent endogenous or external stimuli responsively and effective delivery in the tumor microenvironment and showed meaning tumor-growth inhibition. Some key problems in the development of NA/synthetic anticancer drugs loaded nanocarriers are in clinical translation, and urgently need to be addressed.

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Biological recognition elements

Ravina , ... Hari Mohan , in Electrochemical Sensors, 2022

8.three.iii.ii Peptide nucleic acid (PNA)

PNAs are bogus DNA mimics or analogues that have the North-(2-aminoethyl) glycine peptide backbone in place of the usual saccharide–phosphate courage [67]. PNA is devoid of a negative charge due to the replacement of the usual sugar–phosphate backbone with a polyamide courage, which allows it to demark more efficiently with its complementary sequences due to the absence of electrostatic repulsion [68]. Hence, PNA can be used in biosensing applications to increase Deoxyribonucleic acid mismatch discrimination and sensitivity. PNA can specifically hybridize to RNA and cDNA due to like intramolecular distances and configuration as in natural DNA. The difference in the PNA construction helps to establish a new detection mode in which labeling tin exist avoided. Hence, PNA can contribute to rapid and reliable biosensor fabrication. PNA is now existence used in place of DNA for gilt nanoparticles (AuNPs) and red-to-blueish color transition due to nanoparticle assemblage as a issue of hybridization with cDNA strands [69]. The color alter can be observed on surface plasmon band shifting due to assemblage, and this characteristic is the root of colorimetric biosensor fabrication for the selective detection of Dna. These PNA-factionalized AuNPs are highly selective, sensitive, and simple. Xi and co-workers used PNA molecular beacons and DNA for the quantification and detection of rRNA in whole cells, which is of clinical significance. These PNA molecular beacons are also perfect for the detection of whole bacteria in real time [70]. Confocal microscopy is used for the detection of fluorescence emitted from PNA molecular beacons and DNA in microfluidic systems.

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Molecular Microbiology

Frederick S. Nolte , in Principles and Applications of Molecular Diagnostics, 2018

Abstract

Background

Nucleic acid (NA) amplification techniques are now ordinarily used to diagnose and manage patients with infectious diseases. The growth in the number of Nutrient and Drug Assistants–approved test kits and analyte-specific reagents has facilitated the use of this technology in clinical laboratories. Technological advances in NA distension techniques, automation, NA sequencing, and multiplex analysis have reinvigorated the field and created new opportunities for growth. Unproblematic, sample-in, answer-out molecular test systems are now widely available that can be deployed in a variety of laboratory and clinical settings. Molecular microbiology remains the leading area in molecular pathology in terms of both the numbers of tests performed and clinical relevance. NA-based tests have reduced the dependency of the clinical microbiology laboratory on more traditional antigen detection and culture methods and created new opportunities for the laboratory to bear on patient care.

Content

This chapter reviews NA testing equally information technology applies to specific pathogens or communicable diseases syndromes, with a focus on those diseases for which NA testing is now considered the standard of care and highlights the unique challenges and opportunities that these tests present for clinical laboratories.

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Dendrimers for drug commitment purposes

Jiayi Pan , ... Vladimir P. Torchilin , in Nanoengineered Biomaterials for Advanced Drug Commitment, 2020

ten.1.4.ii Delivery of nucleic acids

Nucleic acid (NA) therapies have aroused groovy interest over the concluding two decades due to their potential ability to treat, repair, and correct multiple genetic disorders. All the same, there are nonetheless of import limitations and difficulties that impede the straight delivery of naked nucleic acids. For instance, the large molecular weight, hydrophilicity, and negative charges of NA molecules prevent the successful penetration across prison cell membranes. They are also susceptible to nuclease deposition and liable to phagocytosis and rapid clearance. Thus the development of NA commitment systems to overcome these limitations and facilitate the precise cellular targeting and delivery is considered a potentially promising endeavor. Generally, there are two types of NA delivery carriers "viral- and nonviral"-based vectors. Although the viral vectors are the most efficient vectors for NA transfection, there are many obstacles that limit their applications including nonspecificity and immunological responses. In dissimilarity, nonviral vectors present some advantages over the viral ones including fewer immunological reactions, adjustable surface modification, ability to target specific cells, and college reproducibility and stability.

Cationic dendrimers are one of the most studied nonviral NA delivery systems [44–46]. The well-divers construction, multivalence, and high density of peripheral adaptable functional groups return them a promising tool for NA delivery [47]. Cationic dendrimers form stable electrostatic interaction with the negatively charged phosphate groups of NAs, forming nanoscale complexes called dendriplexes [48, 49]. Later on the dendriplexes become endocytosed in endosomes, the electrostatic bonds interruption associate with the decrease in pH. Abundant amine groups on cationic dendrimers initiate the "proton sponge effect" and facilitate the endosomal escape of NA molecules (Fig. 10.5). The nature of dendriplexes tin be influenced by multiple factors such as the generation of the dendrimer and the ratio between cationic and anionic groups and solvent properties [50]. PAMAM dendrimers have been extensively investigated in NA delivery. For example, delivery of carbonyl reductase one (CRB1) plasmid Dna to ovarian cancer cells via a G6 PAMAM dendrimer was reported to inhibit the dissemination and proliferation of malignant cells in mice without any significant adverse furnishings [51]. Among different generations of amine-terminated PAMAM dendrimers, G4 and G7 had equal efficiency in dendriplex formation. G1 lacked NA condensation ability. Also, both flexible G1 and rigid G-vii showed an entropic penalty, rendering G4 the most favorable for dendriplex formation due to its appropriate charge density and biocompatibility for NA complexation [52].

Fig. 10.5

Fig. 10.5. Application of PAMAM dendrimers as a drug and/or nucleic acid delivery platform and their cell-entering route. Dendrimers are internalized by the cell in endosomal vesicles. Due to the lower pH inside the endosome (pH 5.five) and the affluence of tertiary amines in the dendrimers, the "proton sponge result" is achieved. It promotes the influx of ions into the vesicles, which eventually leads to rupture of the endosomal wall and intracellular release of the cargo. Depending on the payload the effect will occur in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus.

 Reproduced with permission from L. Palmerston Mendes, J. Pan, V.P. Torchilin, Dendrimers as nanocarriers for nucleic acid and drug delivery in cancer therapy, Molecules 22(9) (2017); MDPI; 2017.

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Cationic vs. not-cationic polymeric vectors for nucleic acid delivery

Yang Fang , Ke Zhang , in Reference Module in Materials Scientific discipline and Materials Engineering, 2021

Abstract

Nucleic acids face up meaning cellular and systemic delivery obstacles such as weak uptake into organelles of involvement, enzymatic degradation, and clearance upon systemic assistants. The difficulties facing the evolution of nucleic acrid biopharmaceuticals are frequently a commitment problem. To more efficiently protect, send, and release nucleic acids at target sites, various nanomaterials take been explored, amid which polymeric materials have been extensively studied both pre-clinically and clinically. In this review, we categorize the different types of polymeric materials for nucleic acid delivery as cationic and non-cationic, with a focus on the latter. The specific advantages and limitations of different materials also every bit considerations for in vivo and clinical translation are discussed. Nosotros envision that with lessons learned from the past, polymeric nucleic acid carriers will somewhen pause through the clinical barrier to do good patients.

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Liposomal bionanomaterials for nucleic acid delivery

P.N. Vigneshkumar , ... Jinu George , in Fundamentals of Bionanomaterials, 2022

Abstract

Nucleic acrid-based therapy shows excellent potential in the treatment of various diseases, which are strenuous to cure. All the same, the rapid deposition of naked therapeutic genes by nuclease enzyme reduces its transfection efficiency. Wide varieties of viral and nonviral vectors have been developed to upgrade the efficiency and stability of gene commitment. Amongst nonviral vectors, cationic liposome-Dna complexes gained widespread clinical appreciation. It can safely and effectively evangelize genetic materials, including DNA, siRNA, miRNA, and oligonucleotides to the target site. Depression immunogenicity, ease of preparation and the apparent safety of cationic liposomes demonstrate their tremendous role in delivering the nucleic acids for therapeutic purposes. Cationic liposomes exhibited a great advantage with their biodegradable nature along with high biocompatibility and low cytotoxicity. This chapter highlights various nucleic acrid-based cationic liposomes as a potential bionanomaterial and its recent progress in the awarding of therapeutic nucleic acrid delivery.

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NUCLEIC ACIDS | Extraction

S.J. Walker , K.E. Vrana , in Encyclopedia of Separation Science, 2000

Summary/Future Directions

Nucleic acrid extraction from biological samples was one of the enabling technologies in the development of molecular biological science. Information technology has remained largely unchanged for the past 20 years and, in its present state, continues to exist a mainstay of the field. Most of the common advances take been in the automation of the process and the creation of high throughput technical platforms. The challenge for the coming years will exist the further refinement of these automatic applications and the creation of solid-state systems. These approaches will involve the liberation of nucleic acids from the biological samples, capture of the specific chemical form (Deoxyribonucleic acid or RNA) on a solid matrix, and the subsequent analysis of the nucleic acrid in that physical environment without further manipulation. Regardless of these potential technical advances, even so, the essential principles volition remain unchanged and the separation of nucleic acids from circuitous mixtures of macromolecules volition exist a requisite stride in the characterization of genomic systems.

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